11 files changed, 391 insertions, 303 deletions

diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/AsmBuilder.hpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/AsmBuilder.hpp
index 31fe0aa..38fa195 100644
--- a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/AsmBuilder.hpp
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/AsmBuilder.hpp
@@ -1,91 +1,22 @@
 #pragma once
 
+#include "Utility.hpp"
 #include <lauf/asm/builder.h>
 #include <lauf/asm/module.h>
 
 namespace OpenVic::Vm {
-	struct AsmBuilder {
-		AsmBuilder(lauf_asm_build_options options) : _handle(lauf_asm_create_builder(options)) {}
+	struct AsmBuilder : utility::MoveOnlyHandleBase<AsmBuilder, lauf_asm_builder> {
+		using MoveOnlyHandleBase::MoveOnlyHandleBase;
+		using MoveOnlyHandleBase::operator=;
 
-		AsmBuilder(AsmBuilder&&) = default;
-		AsmBuilder& operator=(AsmBuilder&&) = default;
-
-		AsmBuilder(AsmBuilder const&) = delete;
-		AsmBuilder& operator=(AsmBuilder const&) = delete;
+		AsmBuilder(lauf_asm_build_options options) : MoveOnlyHandleBase(lauf_asm_create_builder(options)) {}
 
 		~AsmBuilder() {
-			lauf_asm_destroy_builder(_handle);
-		}
-
-		lauf_asm_builder* handle() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		const lauf_asm_builder* handle() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator lauf_asm_builder*() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator const lauf_asm_builder*() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		struct CodeBuilder {
-			CodeBuilder(CodeBuilder const&) = delete;
-			CodeBuilder& operator=(CodeBuilder const&) = delete;
-
-			~CodeBuilder() {
-				if (!has_finished()) {
-					finish();
-				}
-			}
-
-			operator lauf_asm_builder*() {
-				return _builder.handle();
-			}
-
-			operator const lauf_asm_builder*() const {
-				return _builder.handle();
-			}
-
-			bool finish() {
-				return _has_finished = lauf_asm_build_finish(_builder.handle());
-			}
-
-			bool has_finished() const {
-				return _has_finished;
-			}
-
-			bool is_well_formed() const {
-				return _is_well_formed;
+			if (_handle == nullptr) {
+				return;
 			}
-
-			void build_function(lauf_asm_function* fn) {
-				lauf_asm_build(_builder.handle(), _module, fn);
-			}
-
-			void build_chunk(lauf_asm_chunk* chunk, lauf_asm_signature sig) {
-				lauf_asm_build_chunk(_builder.handle(), _module, chunk, sig);
-			}
-
-		private:
-			friend struct AsmBuilder;
-			CodeBuilder(AsmBuilder& builder, lauf_asm_module* module) : _builder(builder), _module(module) {}
-
-			bool _has_finished;
-			bool _is_well_formed;
-			AsmBuilder& _builder;
-			lauf_asm_module* _module;
-		};
-
-		CodeBuilder code(lauf_asm_module* module) {
-			return CodeBuilder(*this, module);
+			lauf_asm_destroy_builder(*this);
+			_handle = nullptr;
 		}
-
-	private:
-		lauf_asm_builder* _handle;
 	};
 }
diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Codegen.cpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Codegen.cpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b84078e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Codegen.cpp
@@ -0,0 +1,82 @@
+#include "Codegen.hpp"
+
+#include <cctype>
+#include <string_view>
+
+#include <openvic-dataloader/v2script/AbstractSyntaxTree.hpp>
+
+#include <dryad/node.hpp>
+#include <dryad/tree.hpp>
+
+#include <range/v3/algorithm/equal.hpp>
+
+#include "tsl/ordered_map.h"
+#include <lauf/asm/builder.h>
+
+using namespace OpenVic::Vm;
+using namespace ovdl::v2script::ast;
+using namespace ovdl::v2script;
+
+using namespace std::string_view_literals;
+
+bool ichar_equals(char a, char b) {
+	return std::tolower(static_cast<unsigned char>(a)) == std::tolower(static_cast<unsigned char>(b));
+}
+
+void Codegen::generate_effect_from(Parser const& parser, Node* node) {
+	bool is_prepping_args = false;
+	tsl::ordered_map<std::string_view, std::string_view> prepped_arguments;
+
+	dryad::visit_tree(
+		node, //
+		[&](dryad::child_visitor<NodeKind> visitor, AssignStatement* statement) {
+			auto const* left = dryad::node_try_cast<FlatValue>(statement->left());
+			if (!left) {
+				return;
+			}
+
+			auto const* right = dryad::node_try_cast<FlatValue>(statement->right());
+			if (!right) {
+				is_prepping_args = true; // TODO: determine if scope or list-arg effect
+				visitor(right);
+			} else if (ranges::equal(right->value().view(), "yes"sv, ichar_equals)) {
+				// TODO: insert vic2 bytecode scope object address here
+				// TODO: calls a builtin for Victoria 2 effects?
+			} else if (!ranges::equal(right->value().view(), "no"sv, ichar_equals)) {
+				// TODO: single argument execution
+			}
+		},
+		[&](FlatValue* value) {
+			// TODO: handle right side
+		}
+	);
+}
+
+void Codegen::generate_condition_from(Parser const& parser, Node* node) {
+	bool is_prepping_args = false;
+	tsl::ordered_map<std::string_view, std::string_view> prepped_arguments;
+
+	dryad::visit_tree(
+		node, //
+		[&](dryad::child_visitor<NodeKind> visitor, AssignStatement* statement) {
+			auto const* left = dryad::node_try_cast<FlatValue>(statement->left());
+			if (!left) {
+				return;
+			}
+
+			auto const* right = dryad::node_try_cast<FlatValue>(statement->right());
+			if (!right) {
+				is_prepping_args = true; // TODO: determine if scope or list-arg effect
+				visitor(right);
+			} else if (ranges::equal(right->value().view(), "yes"sv, ichar_equals)) {
+				// TODO: insert vic2 bytecode scope object address here
+				// TODO: calls a builtin for Victoria 2 triggers?
+			} else if (!ranges::equal(right->value().view(), "no"sv, ichar_equals)) {
+				// TODO: single argument execution
+			}
+		},
+		[&](FlatValue* value) {
+			// TODO: handle right side
+		}
+	);
+}
diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Codegen.hpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Codegen.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1670718
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Codegen.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <openvic-dataloader/v2script/AbstractSyntaxTree.hpp>
+#include <openvic-dataloader/v2script/Parser.hpp>
+
+#include "AsmBuilder.hpp"
+#include "Module.hpp"
+#include <lauf/asm/builder.h>
+
+namespace OpenVic::Vm {
+	struct Codegen {
+		Codegen(const char* module_name, lauf_asm_build_options options = lauf_asm_default_build_options)
+			: _module(module_name), _builder(options) {}
+
+		Codegen(Module&& module, AsmBuilder&& builder) : _module(std::move(module)), _builder(std::move(builder)) {}
+
+		operator lauf_asm_module*() {
+			return _module;
+		}
+
+		operator const lauf_asm_module*() const {
+			return _module;
+		}
+
+		operator lauf_asm_builder*() {
+			return _builder;
+		}
+
+		operator const lauf_asm_builder*() const {
+			return _builder;
+		}
+
+		Module& module() {
+			return _module;
+		}
+
+		Module const& module() const {
+			return _module;
+		}
+
+		AsmBuilder& builder() {
+			return _builder;
+		}
+
+		AsmBuilder const& builder() const {
+			return _builder;
+		}
+
+		lauf_asm_block* create_block(size_t input_count) {
+			return lauf_asm_declare_block(_builder, input_count);
+		}
+
+		void set_working_block(lauf_asm_block* block) {
+			lauf_asm_build_block(*this, block);
+		}
+
+		lauf_asm_function* create_effect_function(ovdl::v2script::Parser const& parser, ovdl::v2script::ast::Node* node);
+		lauf_asm_function* create_condition_function(ovdl::v2script::Parser const& parser, ovdl::v2script::ast::Node* node);
+
+		void generate_effect_from(ovdl::v2script::Parser const& parser, ovdl::v2script::ast::Node* node);
+		void generate_condition_from(ovdl::v2script::Parser const& parser, ovdl::v2script::ast::Node* node);
+
+		// Bytecode instructions //
+		void inst_push_scope_this();
+		void inst_push_scope_from();
+
+		void inst_push_get_country_capital();
+		void inst_push_get_country_cultural_union();
+		void inst_push_get_country_overlord();
+		void inst_push_get_country_sphere_owner();
+
+		void inst_push_get_province_controller();
+		void inst_push_get_province_owner();
+		void inst_push_get_province_state();
+
+		void inst_push_get_pop_location();
+		void inst_push_get_pop_country();
+		void inst_push_get_pop_cultural_union();
+
+		void inst_push_get_random_country();
+		void inst_push_get_random_owned();
+
+		void inst_push_get_random_neighbor_province();
+		void inst_push_get_random_empty_neighbor_province();
+
+		void inst_push_get_this_union();
+
+		void inst_push_get_tag(const char* nation_id);
+		void inst_push_get_province(const char* province_id);
+		void inst_push_get_region(const char* region_id);
+		void inst_push_get_continent(const char* continent_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_pop_type(const char* pop_type_id);
+		void inst_push_get_unit_type(const char* unit_type_id);
+		void inst_push_get_factory_type(const char* factory_type_id);
+		void inst_push_get_building_type(const char* building_type_id);
+		void inst_push_get_crime_type(const char* crime_type_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_culture(const char* culture_id);
+		void inst_push_get_religion(const char* religion_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_economic_reform(const char* economic_reform_id);
+		void inst_push_get_social_reform(const char* social_reform_id);
+		void inst_push_get_political_reform(const char* political_reform_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_trade_policy(const char* trade_policy_id);
+		void inst_push_get_war_policy(const char* war_policy_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_issue(const char* issue_id);
+		void inst_push_get_ideology(const char* ideology_id);
+		void inst_push_get_party(const char* party_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_military_leader(const char* military_leader_id);
+		void inst_push_get_personality_trait(const char* personality_trait_id);
+		void inst_push_get_background_trait(const char* background_trait_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_event(const char* event_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_trade_good(const char* trade_good_id);
+		void inst_push_get_resource(const char* resource_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_technology(const char* technology_id);
+		void inst_push_get_government(const char* government_id);
+		void inst_push_get_casus_belli(const char* casus_belli_id);
+		void inst_push_get_national_value(const char* national_value_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_variable(const char* variable_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_global_flag(const char* flag_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_country_flag(const char* flag_id);
+		void inst_push_get_country_modifier(const char* modifier_id);
+
+		void inst_push_get_province_flag(const char* flag_id);
+		void inst_push_get_province_modifier(const char* modifier_id);
+		// Bytecode instructions //
+
+	private:
+		Module _module;
+		AsmBuilder _builder;
+	};
+}
diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Module.hpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Module.hpp
index d8a7c6e..9483e26 100644
--- a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Module.hpp
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Module.hpp
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
 
 #include <range/v3/view/enumerate.hpp>
 
+#include "vm/Utility.hpp"
 #include <lauf/asm/module.h>
 #include <lauf/asm/program.h>
 #include <lauf/asm/type.h>
@@ -14,34 +15,8 @@ namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 	template<typename T>
 	concept Arithmetic = std::is_arithmetic_v<T>;
 
-	struct Module {
-		Module(const char* module_name) : _handle(lauf_asm_create_module(module_name)) {}
-
-		Module(Module&&) = default;
-		Module& operator=(Module&&) = default;
-
-		Module(Module const&) = delete;
-		Module& operator=(Module const&) = delete;
-
-		~Module() {
-			lauf_asm_destroy_module(_handle);
-		}
-
-		lauf_asm_module* handle() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		const lauf_asm_module* handle() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator lauf_asm_module*() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator const lauf_asm_module*() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
+	struct ModuleRef : utility::HandleBase<lauf_asm_module> {
+		using HandleBase::HandleBase;
 
 		const char* name() const {
 			return lauf_asm_module_name(_handle);
@@ -80,7 +55,7 @@ namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 			define_data(global, { sizeof(T), alignof(T) }, static_cast<const void*>(data));
 		}
 
-		static std::unique_ptr<const lauf_asm_module* const[]> make_list(std::span<Module> mods) {
+		static std::unique_ptr<const lauf_asm_module* const[]> make_list(std::span<ModuleRef> mods) {
 			auto result = new const lauf_asm_module*[mods.size()];
 			auto span = std::span<const lauf_asm_module*> { result, mods.size() };
 			for (auto [count, element] : span | ranges::views::enumerate) {
@@ -88,8 +63,20 @@ namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 			}
 			return std::unique_ptr<const lauf_asm_module* const[]>(result);
 		}
+	};
+
+	struct Module : utility::MoveOnlyHandleDerived<Module, ModuleRef> {
+		using MoveOnlyHandleDerived::MoveOnlyHandleDerived;
+		using MoveOnlyHandleDerived::operator=;
 
-	private:
-		lauf_asm_module* _handle;
+		Module(const char* module_name) : MoveOnlyHandleDerived(lauf_asm_create_module(module_name)) {}
+
+		~Module() {
+			if (_handle == nullptr) {
+				return;
+			}
+			lauf_asm_destroy_module(_handle);
+			_handle = nullptr;
+		}
 	};
 }
diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Reader.hpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Reader.hpp
index e75042f..83f4788 100644
--- a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Reader.hpp
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Reader.hpp
@@ -2,58 +2,37 @@
 
 #include <string_view>
 
+#include "Utility.hpp"
 #include <lauf/reader.h>
 
 namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 	template<typename Tag>
-	struct BasicReader {
-		BasicReader(BasicReader&&) = default;
-		BasicReader& operator=(BasicReader&&) = default;
-
-		BasicReader(BasicReader const&) = delete;
-		BasicReader& operator=(BasicReader const&) = delete;
+	struct BasicReader : utility::MoveOnlyHandleBase<BasicReader<Tag>, lauf_reader> {
+		using utility::MoveOnlyHandleBase<BasicReader<Tag>, lauf_reader>::MoveOnlyHandleBase;
+		using utility::MoveOnlyHandleBase<BasicReader<Tag>, lauf_reader>::operator=;
 
 		~BasicReader() {
-			if (_handle == nullptr) {
+			if (this->_handle == nullptr) {
 				return;
 			}
-			lauf_destroy_reader(_handle);
-		}
-
-		lauf_reader* handle() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		const lauf_reader* handle() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator lauf_reader*() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator const lauf_reader*() const {
-			return _handle;
+			lauf_destroy_reader(*this);
+			this->_handle = nullptr;
 		}
 
 		void set_path(const char* path) {
-			lauf_reader_set_path(_handle, path);
+			lauf_reader_set_path(*this, path);
 		}
 
 		struct StringTag;
 		struct FileTag;
 		struct StdinTag;
-
-	protected:
-		BasicReader(lauf_reader* reader) : _handle(reader) {}
-
-	private:
-		lauf_reader* _handle;
 	};
 
 	template<>
 	struct BasicReader<BasicReader<void>::StringTag> : BasicReader<void> {
 		using BasicReader<void>::BasicReader;
+		using BasicReader<void>::operator=;
+
 		BasicReader(const char* cstr) : BasicReader(lauf_create_cstring_reader(cstr)) {}
 		BasicReader(std::string_view view) : BasicReader(lauf_create_string_reader(view.data(), view.size())) {}
 	};
@@ -61,6 +40,8 @@ namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 	template<>
 	struct BasicReader<BasicReader<void>::FileTag> : BasicReader<void> {
 		using BasicReader<void>::BasicReader;
+		using BasicReader<void>::operator=;
+
 		BasicReader(const char* path) : BasicReader(lauf_create_file_reader(path)) {}
 
 		bool is_valid() {
@@ -71,6 +52,8 @@ namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 	template<>
 	struct BasicReader<BasicReader<void>::StdinTag> : BasicReader<void> {
 		using BasicReader<void>::BasicReader;
+		using BasicReader<void>::operator=;
+
 		BasicReader() : BasicReader(lauf_create_stdin_reader()) {}
 	};
 
diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/RuntimeFiber.hpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/RuntimeFiber.hpp
index 2c4d21d..7e37e27 100644
--- a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/RuntimeFiber.hpp
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/RuntimeFiber.hpp
@@ -3,7 +3,8 @@
 #include <cassert>
 #include <optional>
 
-#include "vm/Stacktrace.hpp"
+#include "Stacktrace.hpp"
+#include "Utility.hpp"
 #include <lauf/runtime/process.h>
 #include <lauf/runtime/value.h>
 
@@ -12,24 +13,8 @@ namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 
 	struct RuntimeFiber;
 
-	struct RuntimeFiberRef {
-		RuntimeFiberRef(lauf_runtime_fiber* fiber) : _handle(fiber) {}
-
-		lauf_runtime_fiber* handle() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		const lauf_runtime_fiber* handle() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator lauf_runtime_fiber*() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator const lauf_runtime_fiber*() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
+	struct RuntimeFiberRef : utility::HandleBase<lauf_runtime_fiber> {
+		using HandleBase::HandleBase;
 
 		lauf_runtime_address lauf_handle() const {
 			assert(is_valid());
@@ -51,28 +36,14 @@ namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 		bool is_valid() const {
 			return _handle != nullptr;
 		}
-
-	protected:
-		lauf_runtime_fiber* _handle;
 	};
 
-	struct RuntimeFiber : RuntimeFiberRef {
-		RuntimeFiber(RuntimeFiber&&) = default;
-		RuntimeFiber& operator=(RuntimeFiber&&) = default;
-
-		RuntimeFiber(RuntimeFiber const&) = delete;
-		RuntimeFiber& operator=(RuntimeFiber const&) = delete;
+	struct RuntimeFiber : utility::MoveOnlyHandleDerived<RuntimeFiber, RuntimeFiberRef> {
+		using MoveOnlyHandleDerived::MoveOnlyHandleDerived;
+		using MoveOnlyHandleDerived::operator=;
 
 		~RuntimeFiber();
 
-		RuntimeFiberRef& as_ref() {
-			return *this;
-		}
-
-		RuntimeFiberRef const& as_ref() const {
-			return *this;
-		}
-
 		std::optional<Stacktrace> get_stacktrace() const;
 
 		std::optional<RuntimeFiberRef> get_parent();
@@ -87,9 +58,8 @@ namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 		void destroy();
 
 	private:
-		friend RuntimeFiberRef;
 		friend struct RuntimeProcess;
-		RuntimeFiber(RuntimeProcess* process, lauf_runtime_fiber* fiber) : RuntimeFiberRef(fiber), _process(process) {}
+		RuntimeFiber(RuntimeProcess* process, lauf_runtime_fiber* fiber) : MoveOnlyHandleDerived(fiber), _process(process) {}
 
 		RuntimeProcess* _process;
 	};
diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/RuntimeProcess.hpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/RuntimeProcess.hpp
index be183e6..4ab8eb0 100644
--- a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/RuntimeProcess.hpp
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/RuntimeProcess.hpp
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 
 #include "vm/RuntimeFiber.hpp"
 #include "vm/Stacktrace.hpp"
+#include "vm/Utility.hpp"
 #include <lauf/runtime/memory.h>
 #include <lauf/runtime/process.h>
 #include <lauf/runtime/stacktrace.h>
@@ -9,31 +10,13 @@
 namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 	struct VirtualMachine;
 
-	struct RuntimeProcess {
-		RuntimeProcess(RuntimeProcess&&) = default;
-		RuntimeProcess& operator=(RuntimeProcess&&) = default;
-
-		RuntimeProcess(RuntimeProcess const&) = delete;
-		RuntimeProcess& operator=(RuntimeProcess const&) = delete;
+	struct RuntimeProcess : utility::MoveOnlyHandleBase<RuntimeProcess, lauf_runtime_process> {
+		using MoveOnlyHandleBase::MoveOnlyHandleBase;
+		using MoveOnlyHandleBase::operator=;
 
 		~RuntimeProcess() {
-			lauf_runtime_destroy_process(_handle);
-		}
-
-		lauf_runtime_process* handle() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		const lauf_runtime_process* handle() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator lauf_runtime_process*() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator const lauf_runtime_process*() const {
-			return _handle;
+			lauf_runtime_destroy_process(*this);
+			_handle = nullptr;
 		}
 
 		RuntimeFiber create_fiber(const lauf_asm_function* fn) {
@@ -41,17 +24,15 @@ namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 		}
 
 		RuntimeFiberRef get_current_fiber() {
-			return lauf_runtime_get_current_fiber(_handle);
+			return lauf_runtime_get_current_fiber(*this);
 		}
 
 		RuntimeFiberRef get_fiber_ptr(lauf_runtime_address addr) {
-			return lauf_runtime_get_fiber_ptr(_handle, addr);
+			return lauf_runtime_get_fiber_ptr(*this, addr);
 		}
 
 	private:
 		friend struct VirtualMachine;
-		RuntimeProcess(lauf_runtime_process* process) : _handle(process) {}
-
-		lauf_runtime_process* _handle;
+		RuntimeProcess(lauf_runtime_process* process) : MoveOnlyHandleBase(process) {}
 	};
 }
diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Stacktrace.hpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Stacktrace.hpp
index 016443a..35f8a0c 100644
--- a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Stacktrace.hpp
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Stacktrace.hpp
@@ -2,64 +2,35 @@
 
 #include <optional>
 
+#include "Utility.hpp"
 #include <lauf/runtime/stacktrace.h>
 
 namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 	struct RuntimeFiber;
 
-	struct StacktraceRef {
-		lauf_runtime_stacktrace* handle() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		const lauf_runtime_stacktrace* handle() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator lauf_runtime_stacktrace*() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator const lauf_runtime_stacktrace*() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
+	struct StacktraceRef : utility::HandleBase<lauf_runtime_stacktrace> {
+		using HandleBase<lauf_runtime_stacktrace>::HandleBase;
 
 		std::optional<StacktraceRef> get_parent() {
 			auto result = lauf_runtime_stacktrace_parent(_handle);
 			if (result == nullptr) {
+				_handle = nullptr;
 				return std::nullopt;
 			}
 			return StacktraceRef(result);
 		}
-
-	protected:
-		friend struct RuntimeFiber;
-		StacktraceRef(lauf_runtime_stacktrace* stacktrace) : _handle(stacktrace) {}
-
-		lauf_runtime_stacktrace* _handle;
 	};
 
-	struct Stacktrace : StacktraceRef {
-		Stacktrace(Stacktrace&&) = default;
-		Stacktrace& operator=(Stacktrace&&) = default;
-
-		StacktraceRef& as_ref() {
-			return *this;
-		}
-
-		StacktraceRef const& as_ref() const {
-			return *this;
-		}
-
-		Stacktrace(Stacktrace const&) = delete;
-		Stacktrace& operator=(Stacktrace const&) = delete;
+	struct Stacktrace : utility::MoveOnlyHandleDerived<Stacktrace, StacktraceRef> {
+		using MoveOnlyHandleDerived::MoveOnlyHandleDerived;
+		using MoveOnlyHandleDerived::operator=;
 
 		~Stacktrace() {
+			if (_handle == nullptr) {
+				return;
+			}
 			lauf_runtime_destroy_stacktrace(_handle);
+			_handle = nullptr;
 		}
-
-	private:
-		friend struct RuntimeFiber;
-		Stacktrace(lauf_runtime_stacktrace* stacktrace) : StacktraceRef(stacktrace) {}
 	};
 }
diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Utility.hpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Utility.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..189225e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Utility.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+#pragma once
+
+namespace OpenVic::Vm::utility {
+	template<typename T>
+	struct HandleBase {
+		HandleBase(T* handle) : _handle(handle) {}
+
+		T* handle() {
+			return this->_handle;
+		}
+
+		const T* handle() const {
+			return this->_handle;
+		}
+
+		operator T*() {
+			return this->_handle;
+		}
+
+		operator const T*() const {
+			return this->_handle;
+		}
+
+	protected:
+		T* _handle;
+	};
+
+	template<typename Self, typename T>
+	struct MoveOnlyHandleBase : HandleBase<T> {
+		MoveOnlyHandleBase(Self&& other) : HandleBase<T>(other._handle) {
+			other._handle = nullptr;
+		}
+
+		Self& operator=(Self&& other) {
+			this->_handle = other._handle;
+			other._handle = nullptr;
+			return *this;
+		}
+
+		MoveOnlyHandleBase(Self const&) = delete;
+		Self& operator=(Self const&) = delete;
+
+	protected:
+		using HandleBase<T>::HandleBase;
+	};
+
+	template<typename Self, typename Derived>
+	struct MoveOnlyHandleDerived : Derived {
+		using Derived::Derived;
+
+		MoveOnlyHandleDerived(Self&& other) : Derived(other._handle) {
+			other._handle = nullptr;
+		}
+
+		Self& operator=(Self&& other) {
+			this->_handle = other._handle;
+			other._handle = nullptr;
+			return *this;
+		}
+
+		MoveOnlyHandleDerived(Self const&) = delete;
+		Self& operator=(Self const&) = delete;
+
+		Derived& as_ref() {
+			return *this;
+		}
+
+		Derived const& as_ref() const {
+			return *this;
+		}
+	};
+}
diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/VirtualMachine.hpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/VirtualMachine.hpp
index 1c130b2..4398f91 100644
--- a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/VirtualMachine.hpp
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/VirtualMachine.hpp
@@ -1,43 +1,26 @@
 #pragma once
 
 #include "RuntimeProcess.hpp"
+#include "Utility.hpp"
 #include <lauf/vm.h>
 
 namespace OpenVic::Vm {
-	struct VirtualMachine {
-		VirtualMachine(lauf_vm_options options) : _handle(lauf_create_vm(options)) {}
+	struct VirtualMachine : utility::MoveOnlyHandleBase<VirtualMachine, lauf_vm> {
+		using MoveOnlyHandleBase::MoveOnlyHandleBase;
+		using MoveOnlyHandleBase::operator=;
 
-		VirtualMachine(VirtualMachine&&) = default;
-		VirtualMachine& operator=(VirtualMachine&&) = default;
-
-		VirtualMachine(VirtualMachine const&) = delete;
-		VirtualMachine& operator=(VirtualMachine const&) = delete;
+		VirtualMachine(lauf_vm_options options) : MoveOnlyHandleBase(lauf_create_vm(options)) {}
 
 		~VirtualMachine() {
-			lauf_destroy_vm(_handle);
-		}
-
-		lauf_vm* handle() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		const lauf_vm* handle() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator lauf_vm*() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator const lauf_vm*() const {
-			return _handle;
+			if (_handle == nullptr) {
+				return;
+			}
+			lauf_destroy_vm(*this);
+			_handle = nullptr;
 		}
 
 		RuntimeProcess start_process(const lauf_asm_program* program) {
-			return RuntimeProcess(lauf_vm_start_process(_handle, program));
+			return RuntimeProcess(lauf_vm_start_process(*this, program));
 		}
-
-	private:
-		lauf_vm* _handle;
 	};
 }
diff --git a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Writer.hpp b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Writer.hpp
index 2a7696b..595a3da 100644
--- a/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Writer.hpp
+++ b/src/openvic-simulation/vm/Writer.hpp
@@ -1,50 +1,32 @@
 #pragma once
 
+#include "Utility.hpp"
 #include <lauf/writer.h>
 
 namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 	template<typename Tag>
-	struct BasicWriter {
-		BasicWriter(BasicWriter&&) = default;
-		BasicWriter& operator=(BasicWriter&&) = default;
-
-		BasicWriter(BasicWriter const&) = delete;
-		BasicWriter& operator=(BasicWriter const&) = delete;
+	struct BasicWriter : utility::MoveOnlyHandleBase<BasicWriter<Tag>, lauf_writer> {
+		using utility::MoveOnlyHandleBase<BasicWriter<Tag>, lauf_writer>::MoveOnlyHandleBase;
+		using utility::MoveOnlyHandleBase<BasicWriter<Tag>, lauf_writer>::operator=;
 
 		~BasicWriter() {
-			lauf_destroy_writer(_handle);
-		}
-
-		lauf_writer* handle() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		const lauf_writer* handle() const {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator lauf_writer*() {
-			return _handle;
-		}
-
-		operator const lauf_writer*() const {
-			return _handle;
+			if (this->_handle == nullptr) {
+				return;
+			}
+			lauf_destroy_writer(*this);
+			this->_handle = nullptr;
 		}
 
 		struct StringTag;
 		struct FileTag;
 		struct StdoutTag;
-
-	protected:
-		BasicWriter(lauf_writer* writer) : _handle(writer) {}
-
-	private:
-		lauf_writer* _handle;
 	};
 
 	template<>
 	struct BasicWriter<BasicWriter<void>::StringTag> : BasicWriter<void> {
 		using BasicWriter<void>::BasicWriter;
+		using BasicWriter<void>::operator=;
+
 		BasicWriter() : BasicWriter(lauf_create_string_writer()) {}
 
 		const char* c_str() {
@@ -55,12 +37,16 @@ namespace OpenVic::Vm {
 	template<>
 	struct BasicWriter<BasicWriter<void>::FileTag> : BasicWriter<void> {
 		using BasicWriter<void>::BasicWriter;
+		using BasicWriter<void>::operator=;
+
 		BasicWriter(const char* path) : BasicWriter(lauf_create_file_writer(path)) {}
 	};
 
 	template<>
 	struct BasicWriter<BasicWriter<void>::StdoutTag> : BasicWriter<void> {
 		using BasicWriter<void>::BasicWriter;
+		using BasicWriter<void>::operator=;
+
 		BasicWriter() : BasicWriter(lauf_create_stdout_writer()) {}
 	};